What Are the Main Perspectives in the Study of Psychology Essay Example for Free

What Are the Main Perspectives in the Study of Psychology EssayWhat look into methods argon used to study these perspectives? Every topic in psychological science git be looked at in a number of diverse ways and various different mountes tail assembly be adopted for distributively topic. These approaches ar known as perspectives (i. e. view) that involve certain assumptions (i. e. beliefs) about pitying behaviour the way they function, which aspects of them are worthy of study and what make up ones mindk methods are appropriate for labour this study. There may be several different theories within an approach but they every(prenominal) share the above common assumptions. Different perspectives have different research methods. The Gloria Tapes of 1975 are a good example of how different perspectives are used to address the same problems in a clients life, as they are looking at her problems from different viewpoints (http//www. metafilter. com, accessed February 2012). For the purpose of this essay, we will be looking at the five main psychological perspectives. These include the psychodynamic, cognitive, behavioural, biological and gentleist perspectives. A wide range of research methods are used in psychology.In its simplest terms, Martin Shuttleworth (2008) defines research as In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes either gathering of data, in organizeation and facts for the advancement of fellowship Types of research methods include laboratory and field essays, case studies, correlations, interviews, observations and questionnaires. These research methods fall into two basic categories quantitive and qualitive. Qualitative research gathers research that is not in numerical form and is useful for studies at the individual level (i. e. client centred therapy).Quantitive research gathers data in numerical form, which can be put into categories, in order or measured in units of measurement. This type of data ca n be used to construct graphs and tables of raw data. Experiments typically yield quantitative data (McLeod, S. A. 2007). This essay will now go on to explain the main perspectives in more detail and what different research methods are used for each perspective. The essay will end in a conclusion based on what has been discussed. Sigmund Freud was undoubtedly the main founder of psychodynamics. In 1900 he published his paper interpretation of dreams (Gross, R. 2001 page 15).This marked the beginning of psychoanalytical thought. Other psychiatrists who in addition helped substantially with the psychodynamic movement include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler and Melanie Klein. Freuds depth psychology is the original psychodynamic theory and is based on the belief that events in our childhood can have a significant impact on our behaviour as larges. He believed that stack had little free will to make choices in life (opposite to forgivingism) and instead, our behaviour is determined by the unconscious mind mind and childhood experiences. Freud explained the human mind like an iceberg, with wholly a small amount of it being visible (Gross, R. 001 page 15).Most of our thoughts and ideas are not accessible at that meaning (pre conscious) or are totally inaccessible (unconscious). He used techniques such as free association, dream analysis and transference to unlock the subconscious mind. Most of our subconscious has been made up done repression, whereby threatening, traumatic or unpleasant experiences are forgotten and locked away. This is a major form of ego defence. Repression is nearly related to resistance, interpretation of which is another key technique in psychoanalysis. Freud believed that personality is made up of three components the id, ego and superego.The id and superego (unconscious) are in constant dispute with the ego (conscious), which tries to resolve this discord. If this conflict is not resolved, we use defence mechanisms to reduce our anxiet y. Psychoanalysis attempts to help patients resolve their inner conflicts. The id also contains two instincts, eros (life and wake up instinct) and thanatos (dream instinct). Thanatos has weaker energies than eros and is therefore channelled away from ourselves and into aggression towards others. One aspect of psychoanalysis is Freuds theory of psycho tripual development, which shows how early experiences affect adult personality.The most important stage is the phallic stage and during this stage boys experience the Oedipus complex and girls experience the Electra complex (Gross, R. 2001 page 15). These complexes result in children identifying with the same sex parent who enables them to learn sex appropriate behaviour and a moral code of conduct for their future life. However like lots of Freuds work, it has been criticized for everywhere emphasizing the importance of sexuality and under emphasizes the role and influence of affable relationships. The types of research methods th at are used to study the psychodynamic approach include case studies (i. . Anna O, pocket-sized Hans), experiments, hypnosis, slips of the tongue (paraplexes), projective tests (TAT, Rorschach) and dream analysis.Psychodynamic research methods are mostly unscientific and lack empirical support, in terms of analysing human behaviour. For this approach, we are more likely to see qualitative data collection (case studies) which are subjective and also unfalsifiable. The humanist approach believes this approach is too deterministic, leaving little room for personal performance although a great strength of psychodynamics is that it highlights the importance of the subconscious mind and defence mechanisms.Freud too criticizes other perspectives, especially behaviourism, as it doesnt take into account the unconscious minds influence on behaviour (McLeod, S. A. 2007). Behavioural psychology is concerned with how outside environmental factors (stimuli) affect observable behaviour (response ). It focuses on learned behaviour and how these behaviours are learned and reinforced. The underlying assumption is that psychology should be seen as scientific. Around this time Watson, who was the founder of behaviourism, became increasingly critical of introspection and was also starting to experiment on non human animals.He believed the psychodynamic perspective was difficult to verify and was very subjective, the polar opposite of behaviourism which can be accurately measured. With his famous pronunciamento of 1913, Watson redefined psychology and launched the behavioural school of psychology (Gross, R. 2001 page 13). He believed people are born with a blank slate and that peoples (and animals) behaviour are controlled and taught from their unique(predicate) environment, rather than internally (i. e. Freud, Jung). Freud completely rejects tabula rasa and believed people are born with instincts.Behaviourism is purely a nurture approach and how we are nurtured, determines beh aviour. The two main processes whereby people (and animals) learn from their environment are namely classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning by association. The Russian psychologist, Pavlov (1897) accidentally stumbled upon this condition after primarily studying digestion in dogs (McLeod, S. A. 2007). He noticed the dogs salivating whenever he came into the room, even when he wasnt bringing them food between experiments.He believed dogs didnt learn to act reflexively when they saw food. This was hardwired in them as an unconditioned reflex. So why were they salivating when they saw him enter the room? He came to the conclusion the dogs learnt over time to associate him with food. From this knowledge he conducted experiments where he successfully conditioned dogs to salivate to the sound of just a doorbell by the repeated association of the sound of a bell and food.This proved his theory. Operant conditioning involves learning from the consequ ences of behaviour. B. F.Skinner investigated this theory with controlled experiments and showed how rats learnt and changed their behaviour from punishment, positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement with his Skinner Box experiments (McLeod, S. A. 2007). This and other human experiments explained some behaviour by a persons (or animals) motive, therefore proving behaviour occurs for a reason. One other behavioural theory that should be mentioned is social learning theory. Albert Bandura (1977 page 38) states behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning (bobo doll experiment).He believed we learn indirectly, observing behaviours of others then imitating them. For a person to imitate another, the behaviour must be seen as rewarding in some way (reinforced) otherwise this wouldnt happen. Memory is also problematical in some way, and then the behaviour is carried out. Behaviourism is very scientific, using quantitative data. Its labora tory experiments and research with non-human animals is always supported by empirical data, obtained through careful, controlled observation and measurement. These measurements and data are also very accurate.There are limitations to this perspective, with regard to it being too deterministic and its experiments having low ecological value for some. Humanists also believe you cannot compare animals to humans. Behaviourism began to loosen its grip during the 1950s and during the 1960s, cognitive psychology started to take hold. Cognitive psychology is introspective and focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem solving, language and decision making. It has been greatly influenced by psychologists such as Piaget, Bandura and Tolman (1948).Its a very scientific perspective, and revolves around the notion that if we motive to know what makes people tick and behave in certain manners, then we need to know what processes are actually going on in their minds. opposed behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behaviors, cognitive psychology is concerned with internal mental states. It explains behavior in terms of how the mind operates, much comparing it to a computer (Gross, R. 2001 page 21). Such internal processes include perception, memory, language and maladaptive thinking.These processes are viewed as mechanistic. Perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory(a) information. It comes from the Latin word perceptio which means receiving, collecting and action of taking possession with the mind or senses. Memory is the means by which we draw on our historical experiences in order to use this information in the present (Sternberg, 1999). Memory is essential to all our lives. Without a memory of the past, we cannot operate in the present or think about the future.Schemas are memory knowledge packages and can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use some(prenominal) to understand and to respond to situations Piaget, J. (1936). Born in 1896 Piaget was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. Piaget called the schema the basic building block of adroit behaviour a way of organising knowledge. All of us use schemas in our everyday life as well as stereotyping, which are mental short-circuit cuts.Stereotypes are often communicated through words i. e. hairman. Another area of cognitive behaviour is social cognition which is concerned with how people think about each other and different social groups i. e. class, minorities. It is suggested people have psychological problems due to maladaptive thinking and irrational thoughts. C. B. T. challenges these thoughts and behaviours to treat such disorders i. e. Depression or Anxiety. look into methods for cognitive behaviour are mostly in the form of laboratory experiments. Case studies though are sometimes used in situations where individuals are mind-set damaged.Its ex tremely scientific using mainly quantitive data. Skinner criticizes the cognitive approach, as he believes that only external stimulus response behaviour should be studied, as this can be scientifically measured (McLeod, S. A. 2007). One of its strengths though is that this perspective has many empirical studies to support its theories. Its easily measured which is why its included in the medical model and is currently used widely in the NHS. The cognitive approach though, does not always recognize forcible factors in determining behaviour.The biological perspective studies such factors. The biological perspective is a way of looking at psychological topics, by studying the strong-arm basis for animal and human behaviour. It is one of the major perspectives in psychology, and involves such things as studying the immune system, nervous system and genetics. This field of psychology is often referred to as biopsychology or physiological psychology. This perspective has grown signifi cantly over the past few decades, especially with advances in our ability to explore and understand the human brain and nervous system.Eysenck (1980) believes peoples personality behaviour can be explained in terms of the kind of nervous system a person inherits and has also produced inference ( Eysenck 1967) relating to biological differences between introverts and extroverts, believing behaviour can be governed by physiology and genetics (inheritance), (Gross, R. 2001 page 616). MRI scans and PET scans also allow researchers to look at the brain in different ways and can explain behaviours in neurological terms. This can sometimes explain abnormal behaviour in people. biologic psychologists believe that schizophrenia is affect by levels of dopamine (a neurotransmitter), and a brain scan can show up these levels. Autism can also be case-hardened by psychoactive drugs and low carbohydrate diets too (Gross, R. 2001 page 582). Those findings have also helped psychiatry and helped t o relieve symptoms of mental illness through drugs. One limitation of this perspective is that Freudians would say the biological approach only treats the surface symptoms and not the underlying causes of the actual problem.This approach is very scientific, using laboratory and natural experiments for physiological studies. Brain function studies include invasive (Autopsy) and non- invasive (CAT scans) methods. Brain damaged individuals are also investigated through case studies. The biological approach has a strong counter argument against the nurture approach (behavioural) but humanists would argue against this perspective as being too deterministic. Two of the most influential theorists in human-centred psychology are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow (Hierarchy of Needs Model).Carl Ransom Rogers was born in 1902 in Oak Park Illinois and is the founder of person centred or non-directive therapy. Its a form of talk psychotherapy and the goal of P. C. T is to develop a sense of self w herein the client can realize, how their attitudes, feelings and behaviour are being negatively affected and make an effort to find their true potential (Rogers, R C 1961 page 18). Clients are aided by the therapist to find their own solutions to their problems through self-awareness, finally leading to self-actualisation.In Rogerss words the organism has one basic tendency and striving to actualise, maintain and enhance the experiencing organism (Rogers, R C 1961, 487). He believes we can help ourselves through our own free will and personal agency, to self-actualise to become a fully functioning person once again. humanist psychologists empower their clients rather than have power or authority over them like psychoanalysts or behaviourists do. They look at human behaviour not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving.Its based on the six core conditions needed for change. As humanists focus on the whole person (holism), they reg ard scientific measures (i. e. biological) inappropriate for studying behaviour, although their belief in free will is in opposition to the deterministic laws of science. The research uses qualitative data, using methods such as case studies and informal interviews. Qualitative data also gives genuine insight and more holistic information into behaviour. As we can conclude from the discussions on the various perspectives, each one focuses on their own unique conception of why humans behave as they do.Freuds tensity reducing person, Skinners environmentally controlled person and Rogers growth motivated person are all quite different from each other. This diversity of approaches and research methods gleam the complexity of this subject matter. However weve also noted some important similarities between different approaches, such as the deterministic nature of Freuds and Skinners theories and the scientific nature of the behaviourist and biological approaches, which have no considera tion for human free will. Each perspective has its own unique strengths and limitations and can even negate each others theories.A scientific approach such as cognitive psychology tends to ignore the subjective (i. e. personal) experiences that people have. The humanistic approach accounts for this but largely at the expense of being non-scientific in its methods and ability to provide evidence. Each perspective though, has something of value to contribute to our understanding of ourselves and human behaviour. Without all these perspectives our learning and understanding of human behaviour would indeed be more limited and therefore each perspective has its own unique place in psychology.